Development of and Changes in Precognitive and Cognitive Constructs
Order ID |
53563633773 |
Type |
Essay |
Writer Level |
Masters |
Style |
APA |
Sources/References |
4 |
Perfect Number of Pages to Order |
5-10 Pages |
Description/Paper Instructions
Development of and Changes in Precognitive and Cognitive Constructs
282 Saleem et al.
Bushman and Huesmann, 2006; Gentile and Gentile, 2008; Huesmann and Kirwil, 2007; Maier and Gen- tile, 2012; Swing et al., 2008]. Specific to the present study, these theories suggest that playing a prosocial video game should prime knowledge structures re- lated to prosocial actions, including associated cogni- tions, feelings, and physiological arousal. Of course, the efficacy of priming prosocial behavioral scripts depends on the existence of such scripts and chronic accessibility. For example, Bushman and Huesmann (2006) showed that brief experimental manipulations of media violence tend to produce somewhat larger short-term effects on older participants (mostly col- lege students) than on younger ones. This difference in short-term effects occurs because short-term ef- fects of media exposure are primarily attributed to activation of existing knowledge structures and chil- dren have less developed knowledge structures and fewer existing encoded cognitions based on their lim- ited experience. Although previous work has tested the short-term effect of violent content on children, the short-term effect of prosocial content on children remains unexplored.
In addition to short-term effects the social-cognitive learning theory predicts that repeated practice with prosocial (or antisocial) behavioral scripts can yield several long-term effects, including the develop- ment of and changes in precognitive and cogni- tive constructs (perception and expectation schemata, beliefs, scripts), cognitive-emotional constructs (at- titudes and stereotypes) and affective traits (condi- tioned emotional responses, empathy, trait hostility). Indeed, recent longitudinal studies (some as short as 3 months, others as long as 30 months) have found that children and adolescents who play a lot of vio- lent video games become more aggressive over time, even after controlling for earlier aggressiveness and other theoretically relevant variables [Anderson et al., 2007, 2008; Hopf et al., 2008; Moller and Krahe, 2009; Wallenius and Punamaki, 2008]. Aggressive be- haviors in these studies included getting into fights and delinquency. In terms of prosocial video game ef- fects, the only published longitudinal study found that prosocial video game exposure significantly predicted prosocial behavior 4–5 months later, even after statis- tically controlling for other relevant variables [Gentile et al., 2009].
In addition to situation variables, the social- cognitive learning theories suggest that person vari- ables (e.g., trait aggression) may also directly or in- directly influence prosocial and antisocial outcomes. For example, individual differences in aggressiveness might interact with the presence of violent stim- uli in the elicitation of aggression-related thoughts,
emotional states, action tendencies, and behavioral responses. More specifically, high trait aggressive in- dividuals might manifest all of these responses to aggressive cues more than individuals low on trait aggression, because they have more extensive ag- gressive cognitive-associative networks. Indeed, Bush- man (1995) found that media violence was more likely to evoke aggressive affect and behavior in high rather than low trait aggressive individuals. Similarly, Gentile et al. (2009) found trait aggression to be pos- itively related to hurting and negatively related to helping behavior. These findings are important in un- derstanding the complicated interactions between ha- bitual personality variables (e.g., trait aggression) and situational variables (e.g., media violence exposure). Thus, in the present study a measure of trait aggres- sion was included to better understand the combined influence of person and situation variables on helpful and hurtful behaviors.
In sum, previous research finds support for the short- and long-term effects of violent video games on helpful and hurtful behaviors using samples of children as well as adults [see Anderson et al., 2010 for a metaanalytic review). Similarly, prior re- search on prosocial video games has tested short- term (experimental) effects on adults, and long-term (cross-sectional, longitudinal) effects on children and adolescents [Gentile et al., 2009; Greitemeyer and Osswald, 2009, 2011]. However, one gap concerns whether brief exposure to prosocial games (relative to violent and neutral games) increases helpful and de- creases harmful behavior among children. This quetion is important considering short-term effects of media exposure are usually attributed to the priming of existing well-encoded scripts, schemas, and beliefs, cognitive structures that are not as well developed in children as in adults. Thus, the main focus of the cur- rent research was to examine the effects of prosocial, neutral, and violent video games on helpful and hurt- ful behaviors using a sample of 9–14 years olds. A secondary focus was to further validate the help/hurt tangram measure [Gentile et al., 2009, Study 3), which simultaneously assesses helpful and hurtful behaviors, with a different age group.
METHODS
Participants
Participants were recruited for this study by an ad- vertisement in the local paper and by contacting inter- ested parents compiled from previous studies. Each child participant (104 males, 87 females) with ages ranging from 9 to 14 (M = 11.4) completed the study individually and received 20 dollars. The study was
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