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Introduction: Religion & Sociology
While religion was a key focus for the founders of Sociology their interpretation of religion was based on its role and function primarily; rather than as a way of understanding the construction of identity.
While Marx saw religion as playing a supplementary role in the effects of the oppressive nature of capitalism and as an adjunct to the maintenance of power of the Bourgeoisie through the messages it sent to the Proletariat (the meek shall inherit the Earth i.e. there is no need for the Proletariat to revolt against capitalism & the Bourgeoisie during their earthly life because their reward for the oppressive travails that they had suffered will come in Heaven).
Weber saw the practices of Protestantism as a precursor and facilitator in the establishment of industrial capitalism and the broader Western project. In fact, he suggested that the Eastern religions as a major barrier to the development of industrial capitalism. The Eastern religions’ essential focus was to lift the followers above the worldly plane of existence to a higher spiritual experience rather than ‘controlling or shaping the material world’ (Giddens & Sutton 2013, p. 724). Nonetheless he also saw religion playing a role in social action leading to dramatic social transformation (Giddens & Sutton 2013, p. 724). He reached these conclusions by undertaking, probably the most extensive, individual scholarly study of World Religions ever attempted (Giddens & Sutton 2013, p. 724). Where Marx saw religion as conservative and part of the oppressive network of the Bourgeoisie, Weber saw it as potentially transformational.
Durkheim also studied religion extensively but in the latter part of his career. His theoretical perspective known as Functionalism, emphasised the importance of moral consensus and argued, amongst other things, that religion aided in reaffirming individuals’ adherence to core social values. This lead to on-going social cohesion and in effect meant that the worship of religion was in fact the worship of social order and cohesion (Giddens & Sutton 2013, p. 20).
For our purposes, I want to look at, and adapt Durkheim’s use of the notions of the Sacred and Profane. As we now know Durkheim saw religion as reflecting the over nature of the institutions of society. In order to better come to know religion Durkheim “stripped it back” to its elemental form. He did this through a study of Australian Aboriginal society and came up with the notion of totemism. Totems are sacred objects (or practices) which have symbolic significance for the social group. So therefore, the Sacred sits apart from routine aspects of existence, while the profane is constituted by those routinized aspects of our everyday life. The sacred reminds us of our moral compass set in the social context in which we live. The totem, or sacred object or practice stands for the central values of its adherents and the respect that we offer the totem is in fact for those central social values. So, the totem or Sacred is an analogue of our values (Giddens & Sutton 2013, p. 725).
Further Durkheim argued that religion does not rest on belief or faith, in fact it needs to be actively engaged with through rituals and activities to create a sense of social solidarity; he called this collective effervescence (Giddens & Sutton 2013, p. 725).
Modern sociological studies tend to focus on the process of secularisation; that is the movement away from engaging in and seeing religion as a fundamental constituent of modern Western society. This is usually measured in terms of declining church attendance and in a declining nomination of religion in census forms.
Secular Humanism is built on idealism, compassion, and mutual tolerance, in what humanists describe as the true spirit of humanity. Secular humanists see it is a truly universal vision of humankind (Tremblay 2010, p. 24).
Secular humanism grew out of the Enlightenment when science and rationality “defeated” the Church, in particular Christianity, as the fundamental pathway to truth. So, the intersession of God or the Church in determining the best outcomes for humankind gave way to those of a more rational nature. Humanist values such as:
Morality according to the humanists is a formulation of rules to enable humans-and other species-to get along in groups or in communities. Religion is one source of morality but morality can exist without religion. ‘Humanism is probably a more natural source of morality when this takes the form of spontaneous altruism, compassion, self-sacrifice, cooperation and mutual aid within the group, basic sentiments of justice, respect for territorial rights, sexual rights, and so on’ (Tremblay 2010, p. 27). Empathy, which is the capacity to feel for others by imagining ourselves in their place, is essential to be able to establish an effective moral code. ‘[T]o have empathy for others and see things from their perspective is the foundation of a humanist civilization’ (Tremblay 2010, p. 28).
Having established a moral compass it is acted out in the social world through Ethics which deals with questions of moral judgment and of moral behavior by putting into practice a given set of mutually shared values and rules (Tremblay 2010, p. 28).
The mutuality of these shared values and rules is given life in such things as ethical lifestyle choices. These types of choices tend to connect us with the greater social and biological worlds. There is, then, an inevitable connection between these choices and a constructed identity that the individual derives from an association with this humanist form of the sacred. I don’t think there is any more powerful totem today than the environment; capitalism and money notwithstanding. Despite a concerted resistance to the effects of climate change by the conservative forces of the West the totemic power of the environment, the atmosphere and biodiversity has meant that, as Kevin Rudd stated (this is not meant to be a political endorsement), this has become our greatest moral challenge. A number of other “sacred” practices flow from that: Veganism, vegetarianism, animal right, human rights and conscious consumption. These practices all fall under the umbrella of ecospirituality (see the David Tacey reading; Youth, cultural crisis and ecospirituality (below).
Citizenship was seen by Durkheim as the essential ingredient in social solidarity producing a just society. While the notion has not necessarily changed its expression certainly has. It is now possible to be a valued and valuable citizen through consumption. While still in the realms of the profane consumption has been revalued as an elevated expression of your commitment to higher values. While still producing a price signal it is possible to be an ethical shopper and have a morally righteous approach to this greatest of capitalist enterprises. This has obvious and direct implications for identity construction.
Love, desire & its expression while these human emotions have always been a part of the human condition and certainly cleaved the sacred/profane human terrain we have in recent times seen these experiences take on a particular moral and humanist hue. The struggle for Gay/Same Sex marriage has become a moral and human rights issue in the West that has called forth pleas for ethical human dealings for this marginalized group. This has become a powerful social movement that has transformed, a once taboo union, into a modern human rights issue that has called forth notions of equality, compassion and empathy and fundamentally challenged the sacred/profane nexus.
Other Movements
The have been a number of other values-based movements that have had spiritual or transcendent overtones in the last 40 years:
Drug culture, particularly the hallucinogenic type;
The human potential or self-development workshop sometimes associated with American Spiritualist “churches”;
Trance music and neo-corroborees;
Fundamentalist Christianity which as distinct from the “old” religions of the Protestant/Catholic variety no longer takes a Durkheimian approach of affirming surrounding social values but has a modern neo-liberal/individualist approach where God is consumed and forms a direct relationship with the worshipper. The new church is a “venue” that hosts God and individuals consume and purvey “his” message for their own requirements. Here is the modern religious version of neo-liberal identity construction; and
The new Atheism, which along with the rise of other fundamentalisms, has entered the spiritual “market” with gusto. Atheist evangelists like Richard Dawkins (see www.richarddawkinsfoundation.org) have engaged in this “market” (see The God Delusion by Dawkins), some would say, in a belligerent and proselytizing (see for example http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n20/terry-eagleton/lunging-flailing-mispunching). In response there has been a rise in Atheism given expression as a competing “A”theology to the great religions. While there has always been a committed atheist cohort in the population built on the successful overthrow of religion that stemmed from the enlightenment, the new Atheism has emerged in a far more vigorous and zealous form in the last eight years or so (see for example http://newatheism.org & http://newatheists.org). The conundrum for us here is that the new Atheists would prefer to be firmly in the profane category. A gentler version of this movement and one that would probably be more comfortable in the sacred category is Alain de Botton’s Religion for Atheists (see https://www.google.com.au/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=alain+de+botton+religion+for+atheists&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&gfe_rd=ctrl&ei=vkclU4K2KOLC8gfs1oCICw&gws_rd=cr), a book where de Botton takes the view that many of the practices of religion have positive social messages and processes which could be adapted to a form of secular religious practice…and we’re back to Durkheim again!
Reference List
Giddens, A. and Sutton, P. W. (2013) Sociology Seventh Edition, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Tremblay, R. (2010) The Code for Global Ethics: Ten Humanist Principles, New York, Prometheus Books.
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